Written by:
Sarah Dattilo, MS, BCBA, LBS (Melmark & Endicott College) and Lisa Tereshko, PhD, BCBA-D, LABA (Endicott College)

Description:

It’s Saturday morning, and you arrive at your favorite yoga studio for your weekly class. Like every Saturday, you prepare by rolling out your yoga mat in your usual spot, which gives you a clear view of the instructor during class. The lights dim and class begins. After the first few poses, the instructor shows the class a new pose. You intently watch the yoga instructor as they perform the pose. After watching, you can imitate the pose the instructor is demonstrating. This scenario is an example of an evidence-based applied behavior analysis (ABA) technique called modeling.

Modeling is a teaching arrangement in which a learner (e.g., you in the yoga class) observes another person (e.g., yoga instructor) correctly performing a target behavior (e.g., tree pose) and subsequently imitates it (e.g., you are copying the instructor in tree pose; McDowell et al., 2015; Rega et al., 2020). The model can be presented in vivo (live in-person) or recorded (e.g., filmed, videotaped; Sam & AFIRM, 2024). It is a powerful strategy for teaching a variety of skills, including self-help, social behavior, language, communication, adaptive, academics, and play skills (Bordini et al., 2024; Frolli et al., 2020; McDowell et al., 2015). An example of modeling to teach play: a teacher shows their student how to build a tower by stacking one block on top of another. The child watches the teacher, then the teacher says, “Now you try!” and the child stacks the blocks, making a tower, which is modeling in action.

Modeling can be implemented through in vivo modeling (live, in-person demonstration) and video modeling (a pre-recorded demonstration).

  • In vivo modeling: This involves a live demonstration of a specific behavior by a therapist, teacher, or parent in the moment (McDowell et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2026).
  • Video modeling: Includes a pre-recorded demonstration of a behavior to support in teaching new behaviors (Frolli et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2026; Evoy, 2023)

Modeling can also vary by who serves as the model, and it could be anyone, therapists, parents, siblings, peers, or even the individual themselves. For example:

  • Peer modeling: A specific type of modeling in which a peer serves as the model rather than a parent, teacher, etc. (Athamanah & Cushing, 2019; Ashkenazi & Tereshko, 2025).
  • Self-modeling: A specific type of video modeling in which a recording of the individual is edited to show the individual completing the desired behavior accurately (Harris et al., 2017).

All of these can be used individually or in combination.

Research Review:

In 2020, the National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice (NCAEP) conducted a systematic review of modeling that identified 28 high-quality peer-reviewed studies across various scientific journals. This review showed that modeling meets the criteria for evidence-based practice. Modeling was noted to be an effective intervention for autistic individuals aged 0 to 22 years. The report indicated that modeling can effectively address several skill areas, including pre-academic/academic (e.g., letter and number identification), adaptive/self-help (e.g., dressing and hair brushing), communication (e.g., asking for items), joint attention, motor (e.g., cutting and jumping), play (e.g., building structures and taking turns), school readiness (e.g., raising their hand), social, and vocational (e.g., completing purchases; Sam & AFIRM, 2024; Steinbrenner et al., 2020). These findings have since been supported by a subsequent systematic review of evidence-based practices for autistic individuals (Hume et al., 2021).

Learning by watching others is a natural and powerful way to develop new skills. Decades of research have shown that both in-person and video modeling are effective for teaching new skills and helping people use those skills over time and in new situations (McDowell et al., 2015). Early research on modeling focused primarily on social, communication, and everyday functional skills. This research has helped establish both in-person and video modeling as effective approaches for teaching skills in these areas. Both were found to be effective; however, some studies have shown that video modeling led to faster skill acquisition (McDowell et al., 2015; Qi et al., 2018). One reason for this may be that video models reduce the social pressure of face-to-face interaction and appeal to the strong visual processing strengths many autistic learners have (McDowell et al., 2015; Qi et al., 2018). Modeling has also been shown to work well for everyday living skills (e.g., brushing teeth, brushing hair, applying deodorant) across different age groups, helping people become more independent in their daily lives and communities (Bross et al., 2021).

Research has shown that video modeling can be an effective method for teaching job skills to adolescents and young adults in simulated work settings. A study done by Stauch and Plavnick (2020) found that participants gained vocational skills (e.g., cleaning surfaces, restocking supplies, working the cash register) at a fast pace when a video model was used. The video models also included social skills (e.g., maintaining small talk, accepting criticism, accepting compliments) within the vocational task. Only some participants learned the social skills. This highlights that outcomes may differ by skill domain and individual learner. Even so, the overall evidence for video modeling in job training is strong. A review of multiple studies by Bross and colleagues (2021) concluded that video modeling is an effective and well-supported method for teaching job skills to autistic adolescents and adults.

More recently, research has begun to use modeling to train parents and caregivers, helping them learn strategies they can use at home with their child. In one study, Law and colleagues (2018) used a mobile app that showed caregivers visual models of how to support their child’s communication skills. The app had multiple training and feedback stages in which an experienced teacher demonstrated the skill for the parent. The findings of this study provide support for this low-cost and flexible delivery model. In another study done by Bordini and colleagues (2020), experienced ABA therapists developed video classes with a child actor and supporting roles to show parents of children with autism and intellectual disabilities how to use various skill-building strategies. Parents who received this training were better able to support their children, leading to improved outcomes for the children as well. In a preliminary study, Bordini and colleagues (2024) combined parent training, ABA, and video modeling and found it effective for teaching social communication skills (eye contact and joint attention) to autistic children. Collectively, these studies suggest that incorporating video modeling into parent training can expand access to effective interventions, particularly in low-resource settings.

Recent research has explored how modeling works in social settings between peers. One study used video modeling to teach neurotypical adolescents to interact socially with their autistic peers. The models in the video were young adults who portrayed both the neurotypical adolescent and the person receiving social interaction. The results of this study showed that through the video models, the neurotypical peers used what they learned and applied it to new situations with autistic peers. Additionally, there was an improvement in social interactions among autistic participants (MacFarland et al., 2025). Frolli and colleagues (2020) found that self-video modeling (where the learner watches recordings of themselves successfully performing the skill) led to faster learning of social and communication skills (e.g., maintaining conversations and engaging in enjoyable activities with peers, and interacting with salespeople when making a purchase) when compared to peer modeling. As the research base continues to grow, future studies should focus on whether skills are maintained over time, whether they carry over to new settings and people, and how modeling can best be used with adults (Hume et al., 2021; Steinbrenner et al., 2020).

Recommendations:

For providers, modeling is a well-established, evidence-based practice supported by multiple major research reviews (Sam & AFIRM, 2024; Steinbrenner et al., 2020; Hume et al., 2021). It is broadly recommended as an instructional strategy across skill areas and age groups. When implementing with individual clients, there are some important factors to keep in mind. Before using it with a learner, ensure they have the foundational skills for the task (e.g., imitation, sustained attention, and the required motor skills). If the individual lacks these skills, it may be necessary to teach them first (McDowell et al., 2015). Once ready, select the type of modeling that best fits the individual’s needs, the target skill, and the resources available (Hume et al., 2021; Steinbrenner et al., 2020). Pair modeling with individualized reinforcement and prompting to support learning (McDowell et al., 2015). Along the way, build in opportunities for the individual to practice the skill in different settings and with different people, and incorporate natural practice opportunities throughout their day (MacFarland et al., 2025; Qi et al., 2018). As always, seek additional supervision or consultation when needed and practice within your scope of competence. As research on modeling continues to grow, staying up to date with new methods and findings will help ensure that the most effective approaches are used.

For parents and caregivers, modeling is not exclusive to clinical practice. It is a technique you are likely already using (maybe even without realizing it). You, your family, and your friends can all serve as natural, everyday models of several different skills for your child. From teaching them to brush their teeth to the steps of playing a game, caregivers can feel empowered to be the model for their child and support in teaching skills. Progress in learning a new skill is not always linear; there may be bumps along the way, so continue to seek support and guidance from experienced professionals.

Selected References:

Systematic Reviews of Scientific Studies

Bross, L. A., Travers, J. C., Huffman, J. M., Davis, J. L., & Mason, R. A. (2021). A meta-analysis of video modeling interventions to enhance job skills of autistic adolescents and adults. Autism in Adulthood, 3(4), 356-369. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2020.0038

Hume, K., Steinbrenner, J. R., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2021). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism: Third-generation review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(11), 4013-4032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04844-2

Qi, C. H., Barton, E. E., Collier, M., & Lin, Y.-L. (2018). A systematic review of single-case research studies on using video modeling interventions to improve social communication skills for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 33(4), 249-257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357617741282

Steinbrenner, J.R., Hume, K., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

Selected Scientific Studies

Athamanah, L. S., & Cushing, L. S. (2019). Implementing a peer-mediated intervention in a work-based learning setting for students with autism spectrum disorders. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 54(2), 196-210. https://doi.org/10.1177/215416471905400209

Bordini, D., Moya, A. C., Graccielle Rodrigues da, C. A., Cristiane, S. P., Brunoni, D., Brentani, H., Sheila, C. C., Jair de, J. M., & Bagaiolo, L. (2024). Exploring the acquisition of social communication skills in children with autism: Preliminary findings from applied behavior analysis (ABA), parent training, and video modeling. Brain Sciences, 14(2), 172. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14020172

Bordini, D., Paula, C.S., Cunha, G.R., Caetano, S.C., Bagaiolo, L.F., Riberio, T.C., Martone, M.C.C., Portolese, J., Moya, A.C., Brunoni, D., Bosa, C., Brentani, H., Cogo-Moreira, H., & de Jesus Mari, J. (2020). A randomised clinical pilot trial to test the effectiveness of parent training with video modelling to improve functioning and symptoms in children with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 64(8), 629-643. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12759

Frolli, A., Ricci, M. C., Bosco, A., Lombardi, A., Cavallaro, A., Operto, F. F., Rega, A. (2020). Video modeling and social skills learning in ASD-HF. Children, 7(12), 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7120279

Harris, G. M., Little, S. G., & Akin-Little, A. (2017). Video self-modelling as an intervention for remediating dysgraphia in children with autism spectrum disorders. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties, 22(2), 153-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404158.2017.1397525

Hong, E. R., Ganz, J. B., Mason, R., Morin, K., Davis, J. L., Ninci, J., Neely, L. C., Boles, M. B., & Gilliland, W. D. (2016). The effects of video modeling in teaching functional living skills to persons with ASD: A meta-analysis of single-case studies. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 57, 158-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.07.001

Law, G.C., Neihart, M., & Dutt, A. (2018). The use of behavior modeling training in a mobile app parent training program to improve functional communication of young children with autism spectrum disorder. Autism 22(4), 424-439. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316683887

MacFarland, M. C., Plavnick, J. B., Kipfmiller, K. J., & McElyea, A. S. (2025). Using video modeling to teach neurotypical adolescents to interact socially with peers with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 55(5), 1580-1594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-024-06277-7

McDowell, L. S., Gutierrez, A., & Bennett, K. D. (2015). Analysis of live modeling plus prompting and video modeling for teaching imitation to children with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 30(4), 333-351. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1419

Peng, P., Fu, W., Wei, S. (2026). Video modeling on social media use skills for adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 72(2), 324-335.

Rega, A., Somma, F., Iovino, L. (2020). Development of emotional skills through video modeling: A case study with a non-verbal participant. Technology and Disability. 32, 211-218.

Stauch, T. A., & Plavnick, J. B. (2020). Teaching vocational and social skills to adolescents with autism using video modeling. Education and Treatment of Children, 43(2), 137-151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00020-4

Other References

Ashkenazi, J., & Tereshko, L. (2025). Peer modeling. Science in Autism Treatment, 22(2). https://asatonline.org/for-parents/learn-more-about-specific-treatments/applied-behavior-analysis-aba/aba-techniques/peer-modeling/

Evoy, K. (2023). Video modeling: A treatment summary. Science in Autism Treatment, 20(8). https://asatonline.org/for-parents/learn-more-about-specific-treatments/applied-behavior-analysis-aba/aba-techniques/video-modeling/

Sam, A., & AFIRM Team. (2024). Modeling, updated. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Autism Focused Intervention Resources and Modules. https://afirm.fpg.unc.edu

Reference for this article:

Datillo, S., & Tereshko, L. (2026). A treatment summary of modeling. Science in Autism Treatment, 23(7).

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