Focus on the treatment team: Special Education

Kate McKenna, MEd, MSEd, MS, BCBA
Association for Science in Autism Treatment

Molly Joyce-Trainor, MEd, MSEd, MS, BCBA
New York City Public Schools

History

Special Education - Focus on the Treatment Team

Photographed by Mikhail Nilov (pexels.com)

The history of special education in the United States reflects major shifts from exclusion and institutionalization to legal protections, inclusion, and individualized supports. These shifts reflect changes in how disabilities are perceived and labeled (deficit labeling vs. strength-based language), what legal rights are held by those who require support (no legal rights vs. a right to an appropriate education enshrined in Federal law), and how they are integrated into the life of the community (institutionalization vs. community-based schools). Today, special educational supports include individualized accommodations and modifications, inclusion in general education settings, multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), Early Intervention, and transition services for adulthood. However, that has not always been the case.

Special education in the United States formally began in the early 1800s when the first school specifically designed for children with specific learning needs, the American School for the Deaf in CT, opened in 1817. The Perkins School for the Blind, the first school for the blind in the United States, was founded in 1829. From these two schools grew a network of regional special education schools across the United States during the 1800s, serving deaf or blind students. While groundbreaking for their time, these schools were separate from mainstream education. Those with substantial learning needs were commonly institutionalized and labeled “feeble-minded.” Disability was often viewed through a medical or deficit lens that focused on deficits and an inability to contribute meaningfully to society.

Between 1900 and 1950, public schools excluded children with disabilities. Students with physical or developmental disabilities were often placed in separate classrooms, residential institutions, or denied schooling altogether. States enacted compulsory attendance laws but tended to exempt children with disabilities (Yell et al., 1998). Students with disabilities were caught up in two separate movements. Intelligence Quotient (IQ) testing led to tracking and labeling systems, which did not seek to find individuals’ strengths or consider them as learners.

Additionally, the eugenics movement promoted harmful ideas about disability and fitness as a member of society (Lowe, 1998). More specifically, proponents of eugenics viewed certain disabilities and differences as reflective of inferior intelligence, ability, and social value and argued that some individuals were less fit to participate in society or reproduce. These beliefs contributed to a societal view of disability as a deficit or problem to be eliminated or otherwise curtailed rather than a form of human difference to be supported.

Despite these obstacles, between 1933 and the 1950s, parent advocacy groups popped up across the country as awareness of the absence of special education programs gained more attention. One of the first was the Cuyahoga Council for Retarded Citizens, founded in 1933 by the mothers of five children, who demanded public school education for their children. By 1950, 88 such parent-led advocacy groups existed. As a result, it was increasingly difficult for states and school districts to avoid creating programs for students with disabilities.

The modern special education movement grew from broader civil rights activism and is closely tied to the Civil Rights Movement and evolving views of disability (Lengyel & Vanbergeijk, 2021). The landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court decision established that “separate is not equal,” laying the constitutional groundwork for disability rights claims. Undermining “separate but equal” called into question the exclusion of students with disabilities from public schools. Two landmark disability-rights cases in the 1970s resulted from the Brown decision. The Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania decision ruled that children with intellectual disabilities could not be denied public education. Mills v. Board of Education of the District of Columbia held that lack of funding was not a valid reason to exclude students with disabilities, and that students were entitled to due process protection (Linnell & Wieck, 2012). Both cases relied on Brown’s equal protection framework to argue that exclusion from education was unconstitutional. Parents were granted the right to be involved in educational placement decisions concerning their children’s educational programs and the right to be notified of pending evaluations, placement, suspensions, and when services would be terminated.

In 1965, President Johnson, as part of the War on Poverty, allocated federal aid for students needing educational support and accommodations (Lengyel & Vanbergeijk, 2021). State governments distributed the earmarked funds within their own education systems. This encouraged the expansion of state departments of education and shaped the education system we know today.

Special education as we know it began in 1975, when Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA). The law guaranteed a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), due process protections, placement in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), and parental participation in decision-making (Linnell & Wieck, 2012). For the first time, access to education for children with disabilities became a federal mandate. In 1990, EAHCA was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). The IDEA reframed language from “handicapped” to “individuals with disabilities”, added autism and traumatic brain injury as categories protected under the legislation, emphasized transition planning for adulthood, and strengthened regulations regarding inclusion. 1990 also saw the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which expanded civil rights protections beyond schools. These protections also created an ongoing need for professionals who are educated and trained to put these legal rights into educational practice. Understanding the preparation and role of special educators is therefore an important next step in understanding the modern special education system.

Education

Special educators, who work with students from birth to age 21, have obtained a bachelor’s or master’s degree or advanced certification in special education and completed coursework related to remediating learning difficulties in literacy and reading, language comprehension, and mathematics. Coursework may include classes in autism, child and adolescent development, as well as field placements in multiple settings serving students with specific learning needs. In colleges and universities across the United States, bachelor’s, master’s degrees, and certifications are awarded in:

- - Adolescent Special Education
  - Autism
  - Blind & Visually Impaired
  - Deaf & Hard of Hearing
  - Emotional & Behavior Disorders
  - Learning Disabilities
  - Early Childhood (Birth to Grade 2)
  - Elementary Special Education (Grades 1-6)
  - Education of the Gifted
  - Severe & Multiple Disabilities

Qualifications for certification vary by state, as does the type of documentation earned, either a certificate or a license. Many special educators combine their degrees in special education with an additional credential, endorsement, or certificate in applied behavior analysis, literacy, mathematics, or the education of the gifted. The Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), the primary professional organization for special educators, does not directly issue state-level teaching licenses or certifications, but it sets the national professional standards for special education and accredits university teacher preparation programs. The Initial Practice-Based Professional Preparation Standards for Special Educators outline the materials, concepts, and skills that special educators master to provide effective educational services to their students. They reflect the array of competencies needed to support students’ academic, developmental, social, emotional, and behavioral needs and to collaborate effectively with families and other professionals. The standards encompass seven areas of professional practice include:

- - Standard 1: Engaging in professional learning and practice within ethical guidelines
  - Standard 2: Understanding and addressing each individual’s developmental and learning needs
  - Standard 3: Demonstrating subject matter content and specialized curricular knowledge
  - Standard 4: Using assessment to understand the learner and the learning environment for data-based decision making
  - Standard 5: Supporting learning using effective instruction
  - Standard 6: Supporting social, emotional, and behavioral growth
  - Standard 7: Collaborating with team members

The CEC has developed a set of practice standards for Early Interventionists and Early Childhood special educators. Additionally, there is a set of standards for administrators working in special education settings and teachers working with gifted or twice-exceptional students. In their practice, special educators are guided by the CEC’s Special Education Professional Ethical Principles.

Professional organizations

Now based in Arlington, VA, the CEC was founded by a group of educators at Teachers College, Columbia University, in New York City in 1922. What began with a membership of 12 educators is now the largest international professional organization that advocates for children and youth with special education needs. In addition to setting professional standards for special educators, the CEC advocates for government policies that benefit those its members serve and provides professional development in the form of online resources, webinars, and annual conferences. Online resources available to CEC members include CECTV, which broadcasts conference presentations, resources specifically designed for student teachers, a Learning Library with on-demand webinars, and a Special Education Topics section devoted to autism, a compilation of webinars, conference presentations, and articles related to autism and autism treatment.

The CEC publishes two peer-reviewed journals. TEACHING Exceptional Children (TEC), published six times a year, focuses on the transition from research to practice and features practitioner-friendly articles that demonstrate the use of evidence-based methods and materials for use in special education settings. The organization’s quarterly publication, Exceptional Children (EC), features articles highlighting current research on children with exceptionalities.

The CEC has 18 Special Interest Divisions (SID). The SID of interest here is the Division on Autism and Developmental Disabilities (DADD), which supports educators who work with children, youth, and adults with autism, intellectual disabilities, and/or other developmental disabilities. DADD holds a yearly national conference, a summer symposium, and hosts live and on-demand webinars. Its publication, Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, focuses on the education and welfare of persons with autism, intellectual disability, and other developmental disabilities. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities (FOCUS) offers practical educational and treatment suggestions for teachers, trainers, and parents of persons with autism or other pervasive developmental disabilities. FOCUS offers original research reports, position papers reflecting diverse philosophical and theoretical positions, effective intervention procedures, descriptions of successful programs, and media reviews. The DADD also offers members access to the DADD Express, an online newsletter that shares research-based practices and educational strategies related to autism and developmental disabilities.

Scope of Practice

According to the most recent data from the National Center for Education Statistics, 67% of students served under IDEA spend 80% of their school day in general classes (National Center for Education Statistics, 2024). Federal law does not dictate class model or class size; these are determined by the student’s IEP and state legislature. Some models for education delivery include consultant teacher, resource room, integrated co-teaching, special class, related services, and teaching assistant support. Additionally, districts may offer student placement in specialized schools or programs that provide higher-intensity support. Special educators work in a wide range of educational and community-based settings, depending on the age of students, disability category, and level of support needed. Students can qualify for special instruction through early intervention, and support may continue through postsecondary or higher education.

Children with a disability diagnosis may be eligible for services outside of the school-aged program through Early Intervention and Early Childhood Special Education. Early intervention serves children from birth through three years of age. Early intervention includes special instruction delivered by a certified special education teacher and may also include Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA). These services are provided either in the home or at an early intervention center. The primary focus of Early Intervention is to support cognitive, social-emotional, play, and adaptive skill development. At age three, children transition out of Early Intervention and into Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE), which serves students ages three through five. The goal of ECSE programs is to prepare students to enter school-aged programs in the least restrictive environment. A variety of service delivery models are available within ECSE, including special classes, integrated co-teaching classrooms, Head Start programs, and Special Education Itinerant Teacher (SEIT) services. Both Early Intervention and ECSE target developmental delays in communication, social skills, and motor development.

School Settings

Many public school settings offer either inclusive classrooms or general education classrooms with special education support. The purpose of a special educator supporting an inclusive or general education classroom is to ensure students have access to grade-level standards through appropriate accommodations and modifications. Integrated co-teaching classrooms typically consist of a general education teacher and a special education teacher instructing a group of students that includes both students with and without IEPs. These classrooms adhere to a specific ratio of students with disabilities to students without disabilities, which varies by state. The role of the special education teacher is to differentiate curriculum, provide appropriate modifications and accommodations for students with IEPs, and prepare instructional materials to ensure students have access to the general education curriculum.

Resource rooms are designed to supplement instruction provided in the classroom. Students leave general education for part of the day for small-group or individualized instruction and may be grouped based on similar educational needs. Resource rooms serve students with and without disabilities, students with disabilities or speech/language disabilities, or those requiring academic interventions.

Special classes are designed to support groups of students with similar learning needs. Each class has a designated maximum number of students, as well as assigned teachers and paraprofessionals. The objective is to provide specially designed instruction in a self-contained setting, separate from peers without IEPs. Students receive most or all instruction in a specialized classroom. Special class sizes vary by state; however, the smaller class sizes typically indicate higher support needs. Often, students enrolled in special classes have moderate to severe disabilities, autism spectrum disorder, or significant cognitive or behavioral needs. These programs frequently include life skills, functional curriculum, or alternative curriculum aligned to modified standards.

Consultant teachers provide either indirect or direct services to a student. These services are delivered in a variety of settings, such as public, charter, and private schools. Indirect consultant teachers are responsible for ongoing consultation with teachers and educational teams to assist in modifying the environment, curriculum, and lesson delivery to meet the needs of students with disabilities. Direct consultant teachers deliver instruction to a student with disability or a group of students with disabilities within the general education classroom. Students can receive a combination of indirect and direct consultant teacher services.

Private special education schools offer a combination of academic and therapeutic supports for students with severe learning needs that include learning disabilities, emotional disturbances, multiple disabilities, and autism. Many include highly specialized instructors and school-based clinical or psychiatric teams and provide robust wraparound support. Many private special education schools operate on a tuition basis; however, placements are sometimes publicly funded. Under the Individuals with Developmental Disabilities Act (IDEA), students with IEPs are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). At times, public school programs are unable to meet a student’s complex learning needs. In such instances, alternative placement, including private day schools and residential treatment centers, may be considered to appropriately meet their education and therapeutic needs. When a student is enrolled in a residential treatment center, they live on campus either during the week or full-time. These programs provide academic instruction along with opportunities to develop life skills and independent living skills.

Alternative and Community-Based Settings

Alternative Schools serve students with behavioral challenges who are at risk of dropping out of school. They may require a higher level of support in a smaller, structured environment. Special educators also provide services and support to students at juvenile justice facilities, such as secure, locked detention facilities (holding youth awaiting court), long-term training schools or correctional facilities, and community-based residential treatment centers or group homes.

Additionally, special educators work in hospitals and provide educational services for homebound students with medical conditions.

Post-Secondary and Transition Programs

Special educators working in these programs that serve individuals aged 18 to 21 focus on supporting employment skills, independent living, and community integration. These services are often community-based rather than classroom-based. Special educators can also work in student services departments in colleges providing academic or inclusion support.

Special education teachers educate and support students with a wide range of learning, mental, emotional, and physical disabilities. They adapt general lessons, design personalized learning plans, teach academic and life skills, and work closely with families and school staff to help every student succeed.

References

Council for Exceptional Children. (2015). What every special educator must know: Professional ethics and standards. Arlington, VA: CE

Esteves, K. J., & Rao, S. (2008). The evolution of special education. Scholarship and Professional Work – Education. 72. https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/coe_papers/72

Lengyel, L. S., & Vanbergeijk, E. (2021). A brief history of special education. The Exceptional Parent (Online), 51, 25-29.

Linnell, B., & Wieck, C. (2012). Access to justice: The impact of federal courts on disability rights. The Federal Lawyer. https://disabilityjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/FLDecember2012-Access-to-Justice-Article4.pdf

Lowe, R. (1998). The educational impact of the eugenics movement. International Journal of Educational Research, 27(8), 647-660.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). Students with disabilities. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved September 14, 2025, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/cgg.

Turnbull, H. R. (2005). Individuals with disabilities education act reauthorization: Accountability and personal responsibility. Remedial and Special Education, 26(6), 320-326. https://doi-org.proxy.wexler.hunter.cuny.edu/10.1177/07419325050260060201

Yell, M. L., Rogers, D., & Rogers, E. L. (1998). The legal history of special education: What a long, strange trip it’s been! Remedial and Special Education, 19(4), 219-228.

Reference for this article:

McKenna, K., & Joyce-Trainor, M. (2026). Focus on the treatment team: Special education. Science in Autism Treatment, 23(9).

Other Focus on the Treatment Team Articles:

Related ASAT Articles:

Related ASAT Reviews:

#Collaboration #School #SchoolAge #Teachers

Focus on the Treatment Team: Special Education