Written by:
Julie Ashkenazi, MS, BCBA, Synthesis Behavior 
Lisa Tereshko, PhD, BCBA-D, Endicott College

Description

Autism Treatments SummaryA father shows his adolescent child how to start a lawn mower. A tennis instructor shows a student how to serve. An older sibling shows their younger sibling how to flip a pancake. These are everyday examples of modeling. Modeling is an instructional procedure in which an individual proficient in a task, the model (e.g., a teacher, parent, or an interventionist), demonstrates the task for another person (e.g., student, child) who observes and subsequently attempts to copy the model’s performance (Cooper et al., 2020).

Modeling is a type of assistance that increases the likelihood of a correct response (Noell et al., 2021). It is helpful when other prompts, such as verbal (e.g., vocally saying, “Turn on the water”) or physical prompts (e.g., gently placing one’s hand on the learner’s hand to support them in turning on the water), are ineffective. It can be especially beneficial when teaching complex tasks (Noell et al., 2021), such as tying shoelaces, cooking a meal, or shaving. Modeling can also help individuals learn more naturalistically by observing others, which can be extremely useful when learning other skills across contexts and throughout the life span. Perhaps most importantly, modeling is an everyday procedure that all people are likely to encounter in multiple settings and contexts. Consequently, exposing learners to modeling (as an instructional approach) may help prepare them to imitate the actions of others when naturally experiencing unfamiliar or new contexts as they grow older.

Modeling can be a useful teaching strategy because it embeds an interactive learning opportunity when the learner is required to copy the model’s actions. It also enables the learner to observe the positive results of their actions by providing reinforcement opportunities, which, in turn, foster new skill development (DiSalvo & Oswald, 2002). For example, when a younger sibling (the learner) observes an older sibling (the model) flipping a pancake, the learner acquires cooking skills and is provided with an opportunity for reinforcement by enjoying a perfectly cooked pancake they then make themselves.

Peer modeling is unique because peers serve as models instead of professionals or caregivers. This type of modeling is appealing because it widens the range of people an individual can learn from. While peer modeling can be implemented in a range of settings (Athamanah & Cushing, 2019; Blew et al., 1985), it is particularly well-suited for school settings due to easy access to peers. In schools, peer modeling creates an opportunity for target skills to be developed more naturally (Athamanah & Cushing, 2019) and facilitates interactions with typically developing students. These increased interactions can help foster acceptance, social skills, play skills, and friendships (Chang & Locke, 2016). These benefits are notable, as they could help address concerns often shared by autistics educated in inclusive school settings, such as feelings of loneliness and lack of inclusion or acceptance within the class structure (Locke et al., 2012). Additionally, the benefits extend to the peer models, as they gain leadership skills, enhance self-efficacy, and enjoy positive interactions with their peers with disabilities (Chen, 2024).

Research Summary

Modeling is an established evidence-based intervention for autistic individuals (Hume et al., 2020; National Autism Center, 2015). Research shows that peer modeling, a specific type of modeling, is effective for teaching autistic individuals a variety of skills, including receptive labeling (Charlop et al., 1983), discrimination of colors, shapes, and prepositions (Egel et al., 1981), as well as making purchases, checking out library books, and crossing the street (Blew et al., 1985). Moreover, the results of these studies demonstrated that peer modeling could benefit autistics in inclusive classroom settings, with Charlop et al., (1983) reporting increased social behavior as a positive side effect of the intervention.

Recent studies have used peer modeling to support a variety of populations with different skills, including teaching adults to make lifestyle changes to improve health and manage chronic pain (Schweier et al., 2014), improving vegetable consumption in preschool children (Staiano et al., 2016), and increasing physical activity among inactive women in the workplace (Rowland et al., 2018).

In the context of autism intervention, peer modeling is often combined with other procedures such as rewarding appropriate responses (Sira & Fryling, 2012) or additional prompts (Chen, 2024). Kourassanis-Velasquez and Jones (2019) found that peer modeling combined with prompting and reinforcement increased responding and initiating bids for attention during game play for three children with Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS), a diagnosis now classified under autism spectrum disorder (ASD; Autism Speaks, n.d.). Although the results revealed performance was generalized to novel peers, it was inconsistent after the intervention ended; however, the study included only one follow-up check, which limits understanding of long-term performance outcomes. Despite this, both parents and peer models rated the intervention positively. More recently, Chen (2024) used peer modeling with prompts and reinforcement to increase two autistic students’ (aged seven and nine) performance on tasks, such as packing a school bag, putting on a school bag, picking up trash, and lining up for dismissal. Results indicated that participants found peer support helpful, and all peer models indicated they would like to support other students in the future.

Additionally, modeling is a component of Behavioral Skills Training (BST), an intervention package with strong empirical support that also includes instructions, rehearsal, and feedback (Noell et al., 2021). There are numerous examples of interventions that integrate peer modeling with BST (Brady et al., 2016; Chambers & Radley, 2019; Covey & Alber-Morgan, 2021). Covey and colleagues (2021) increased interactive play with children with moderate to severe disabilities using peer modeling, BST, and task analyses. In the weeks following intervention, one participant showed a slight decrease in the trained skill, while the other three demonstrated additional increases in interactive play. Although participant satisfaction was not measured, peer models rated the intervention highly and felt they could engage better with peers with disabilities following the study.

Peer modeling can also be extended to older learners. Athamanah and Cushing (2019) increased independent engagement in vocational tasks and social interactions with autistic participants aged 14-18 using peer modeling as part of a work-based training. During the intervention, peers modeled how to perform tasks, ask questions, and make comments. They also used a variety of prompting strategies, including providing verbal, gestural, or hand guidance, to help facilitate independent participant performance, which led to increases in performance accuracy. Unfortunately, the transfer of skills to other settings and individuals and retention of the skills over time were not assessed due to time constraints of the study.

Recommendations

The research in this review shows that peer modeling is strongly supported by the evidence. This aligns with The National Autism Center’s National Standards Project (Phase 2) and Hume et al. (2021), which both established modeling as an evidence-based intervention for autistic individuals. Peer modeling can be used with learners of different ages to teach various skills (Covey & Alber-Morgan, 2021) and foster acceptance within inclusive educational settings (Chang & Locke, 2016). For modeling to be effective, it seems clear that learners must have two prerequisite skills: the ability to attend to the model and imitation skills (Noell et al., 2021). Therefore, the team directly working with an individual should guide treatment decisions to determine if it is an appropriate intervention for that individual.

Continued research is required to further enhance our understanding of peer modeling. One area needing further investigation includes the extent to which peer characteristics (e.g., age, gender) influence the impact of modeling for autistic individuals. Another item for further research is the generalization across settings and people and maintenance across time of the skills learned through peer modeling. Furthermore, though the benefits are many, it remains essential not only to ensure assent from the autistic learners but also from the peers modeling the desired behaviors. Finally, more research is needed on the satisfaction and preference of the individual learning through peer modeling.

Peer modeling offers significant benefits not only to autistic learners and those with developmental disabilities, but also to the peers who serve as models. These benefits include making friendships, promoting a sense of community, fostering personal growth, patience, and empathy, acquiring new skills, experiencing a sense of reward, and developing more positive attitudes toward individuals with disabilities (Travers et al., 2023). Given its advantages for learners and peers, peer modeling is both evidence-based and compatible with the movements toward building more compassionate and inclusive learning environments.

Systematic Reviews and Task Forces

Chang, Y. C., & Locke, J. (2016). A systematic review of peer-mediated interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 27, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2016.03.010

Hume, K., Steinbrenner, J. R., Odom, S. L., Morin, K. L., Nowell, S. W., Tomaszewski, B., Szendrey, S., McIntyre, N. S., Yücesoy-Özkan, S., & Savage, M. N. (2021). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism: Third generation review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 51, 4013-4031.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04844-2

National Autism Center. (2015). Findings and conclusions: National Standards Project, Phase 2. Author.

Selected Scientific Studies

Athamanah, L. S., & Cushing, L. S. (2019). Implementing a peer-mediated intervention in a work-based learning setting for students with autism spectrum disorders. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 54(2), 196-210. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26663977

Blew, P. A., Schwartz, I. S., & Luce, S. C. (1985). Teaching functional community skills to autistic children using nonhandicapped peer tutors. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18(4), 337-342. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1985.18-337

Brady, M. P., Honsberger, C., Cadette, J., & Honsberger, T. (2016). Effects of a peer-mediated literacy based behavioral intervention on the acquisition and maintenance of daily living skills in adolescents with autism. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 51(2), 122-131. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24827542

Chambers, C., & Radley, K.C. (2019). Training soccer skills to adolescents with autism spectrum disorder via peer-mediated behavioral skills training. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 13(2), 454-461. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-019-00381-2

Charlop, M. H., Schreibman, L., & Tryon, A. S. (1983). Learning through observation: The effects of peer modeling on acquisition and generalization in autistic children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 11(3), 355-366. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00914244

Chen Y. L. (2024). Implementation of a peer-mediated intervention to teach behavioral expectations for two students on autism spectrum and a student with ADHD in an inclusive elementary classroom in Taiwan. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(3), 852-870. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-022-05873-9

Covey, A., Li, T., & Alber-Morgan, S. R. (2021). Using behavioral skills training to teach peer models: Effects on interactive play for students with moderate to severe disabilities. Education & Treatment of Children, 44(1), 19-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-020-00034-y

DiSalvo, C. A., & Oswald, D. P. (2002). Peer-mediated interventions to increase the social interaction of children with autism: Consideration of peer expectancies. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 17(4), 198-207. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576020170040201

Egel, A. L., Richman, G. S., & Koegel, R. L. (1981). Normal peer models and autistic children’s learning. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1981.14-3

Locke, J., Rotheram-Fuller, E., & Kasari, C. (2012). Exploring the social impact of being a typical peer model for included children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(9), 1895-1905. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1437-0

Kourassanis-Velasquez, J., & Jones, E. A. (2019). Increasing joint attention in children with autism and their peers. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 12(1), 78-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-018-0228-x

Rowland, S. A., Berg, K. E., Kupzyk, K. A., Pullen, C. H., Cohen, M. Z., Schulz, P. S., & Yates, B. C. (2018). Feasibility and effect of a peer modeling workplace physical activity intervention for women. Workplace Health & Safety, 66(9), 428-436. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165079917753690

Schweier, R., Romppel, M., Richter, C., Hoberg, E., Hahmann, H., Scherwinski, I., Kosmützky, G., & Grande, G. (2014). A web-based peer-modeling intervention aimed at lifestyle changes in patients with coronary heart disease and chronic back pain: Sequential controlled trial. Journal of Internet Medical Research, 16(7), e177. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.3434

Sira, B. K., & Fryling, M. J. (2012). Using peer modeling and differential reinforcement in the treatment of food selectivity. Education and Treatment of Children, 35(1), 91-100. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42900147

Staiano, A. E., Marker, A. M., Frelier, J. M., Hsia, D. S., & Martin, C. K. (2016). Influence of screen-based peer modeling on preschool children’s vegetable consumption and preferences. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 48(5), 331-335.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2016.02.005

Travers, H. E., Carter, E. W., Picard, E. T., & Hauptman, L. (2023). It “goes both ways”: The impact of peer-mediated interventions on peers. Inclusion, 11(3), 162-178. https://doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-11.3.162

Other References

Autism Speaks. (n.d.). What is PDD-NOS? https://www.autismspeaks.org/pervasive-developmental-disorder-pdd-nos

Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.

Noell G. H., Call N. A., Ardoin S. P., & Miller, S. J. (2021). Building complex repertoires from discrete behaviors. In W. W. Fisher, C. C. Piazza, & H. S. Roane (Eds.), Handbook of applied behavior analysis (2nd ed., pp. 252-269). Guildford Press.

Citation for this article

Ashkenazi, J., & Tereshko, L. (2025). A treatment summary of peer modeling. Science in Autism Treatment, (22)2.

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