Vostanis, A., Padden, C., Chiesa, M., Rizos, K., & Langdon, P. E. (2021). A precision teaching framework for improving mathematical skills of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 30(4), 513-533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-020-09394-2
Reviewed by:
Victoria Flanagan, BA, and Robert H. LaRue, PhD
Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology, Rutgers University
Why research this topic?
Mathematics is one of the most important subjects taught to students in both inclusive and special education settings. Not only is math important for accessing important fields, such as science, technology, and engineering (King, et al., 2016), it has widespread practical applications (e.g., telling time, following a schedule, and counting money). Despite the importance of developing basic skills, students with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) tend to perform below expectations across all core academic skills, including mathematics (Department for Education 2017). To address this, many educators have shifted toward evidence-based models to help students with IDD better access the math curriculum. Several instructional models have been investigated, and some have been identified as successful teaching strategies for this population. Quality indicators for effective teaching of these skills to this population include, (a) tailoring instruction to the current skill levels of the student, (b) providing multiple opportunities to respond on a daily basis, (c) giving immediate feedback, (d) utilizing timed practice and self-graphing, and (e) providing access to reinforcing consequences (Daly et al., 2007; Kleinert et al., 2018; Weisenburgh-Snyder et al., 2015).
A promising approach that incorporates all these components is precision teaching (PT). PT is an evidence-based approach for measuring and analyzing behavior and can be incorporated into educational settings to monitor academic progress and evaluate the effectiveness of instruction. PT is typically implemented by pinpointing a measurable behavior (e.g., writing digits), having students graph their performance daily, teaching smaller component skills prior to larger composite skills, and frequency building to a performance criterion (FBPC). PT has a substantial literature base demonstrating its effectiveness in improving academic performance for typically developing students. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the effects of the precision teaching framework on the development of mathematical skills (i.e., addition) for children diagnosed with IDD. A secondary goal of the present study was to determine if students with IDD and moderate mathematical ability could perform equally or outperform their peers with fewer difficulties with math skills.
What did the researchers do?
Sixteen students between the ages of seven and twelve years of age participated in this study. Twelve of the children had a primary diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and four had a primary diagnosis of intellectual disabilities (ID). All intervention procedures were conducted at the students’ school in England, which provided services to students with an Educational Health Care Plan (EHCP). The participants were separated into three groups: the PT group (n=4), a weekly comparison (WC) group (n=4), and a single comparison group (n=8). Three pre-assessment measures were implemented prior to the study. These measures included the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales—2nd edition Teacher Rating Form (VABS-II TRF), the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale-Second Edition (GARS-2), and the Test of Early Mathematics Ability, 3rd Edition (TEMA-3).
Participants were assigned to experimental groups based on their TEMA-3 scores, which was a measure of their mathematics aptitude. Top performers on the TEMA-3 were assigned to the Weekly Comparison (WC) group. Those who performed in the moderate range were assigned to the Precision Teaching (PT) group. Low scorers were assigned to the Single Comparison (SC) group. To minimize confounds, all experimental groups were familiarized with PT by practicing skills unrelated to mathematics in one 30-s timing across four days. During this PT “practice”, all participants had the opportunity to graph their scores, and receive feedback about their progress.
The PT group (Olaf, Andy, Tom, and Una) received the full intervention, which included daily PT practice (i.e., timings and performance feedback). The participants practiced six skills that were introduced linearly (five component skills and one composite skill). The component skills included pinpointed skills, such as writing tally marks on a worksheet, writing numbers 0-20 after hearing them, or writing number 0-20 in ascending order). After the component skills were taught, the composite skill (i.e., single-digit and double-digit addition with a sum ≤ 20) was introduced. A quasi-experimental (A-B) design was used to document the acquisition of the five component skills. The researchers used a multiple baseline across participants design to evaluate the acquisition of the composite skill, where they were presented with single-digit and double-digit addition with a sum ≤ 20.
The WC group did not receive the intervention (i.e., precision teaching). These participants were assessed once a week while receiving treatment as usual (one hour of mathematics instruction per day) to serve as a comparison group. The data obtained from the WC group guided the aim/goals set for the PT group. The participants in the SC group were only assessed at the beginning and at the end of the study while receiving treatment-as-usual to serve as a comparison to rule out changes as a result of history and maturation.
What did the researchers find?
Some improvement was observed across all three groups for the component skills targeted. Participants in the PT group demonstrated an average improvement (responses per minute) of approximately 64% from the first to the last assessment across all component skills. Improvements were observed across all five component skills for the PT group. The WC group remained stable and only showed significant improvement in two of the five component skills. The average increase in performance for the WC group was approximately 24% from the first to the last assessment. The SC group improved by 63% across all component skills.
The individual results from the four participants in the PT group show clinically significant performance improvements for the composite skill (i.e., single-digit and double-digit addition with a sum ≤ 20) In addition, the performance of students in the PT group met or exceeded that of their peers in the other experimental conditions. Taken together, these findings indicate that PT is an efficient and effective approach for teaching students diagnosed with IDD.
What are the strengths and limitations?
The current study had several strengths. First, the study demonstrated the effectiveness of PT across six skills for all four participants in the experimental group. In fact, the calculated effect sizes indicated that the intervention effects were strong and statistically significant. In addition, these outcomes were acquired without exceeding the duration of the general mathematics lesson they would typically receive (treatment as usual), indicating that the intervention was efficient.
The study also had some limitations that might highlight areas for future research. First, the researchers used a relatively weak experimental design (an A-B design) to evaluate the acquisition of the component skills. While the results are encouraging, they should be interpreted with caution. Second, the sample size in the study was small and group comparisons were not possible, which limits the generality of the findings. Future research should evaluate the effectiveness of PT with larger groups of students. Finally, participants were not randomly assigned to the experimental conditions. The participants were assigned based on their scores on the TEMA-3, which could have affected the results.
What do the results mean?
Precision teaching is an effective teaching strategy for neurotypical students. The current investigation contributes to the literature as it provides evidence that PT can be an effective strategy for teaching mathematics to students diagnosed with IDD. The results show that the intervention led to pronounced improvement in all skills, including addition. Student performance in mathematics either met or exceeded their peers, and the findings suggest that it is an efficient and valuable approach for teaching students with IDDs.
References
Daly, E. J., Martens, B. K., Bamett, D., Witt, J. C., Leaming, I., & Olson, S. C. (2007). Varying intervention delivery in response to intervention: Confronting and resolving challenges with measurement, instruction, and intensity. School Psychology, 36, 562-581.
Department for Education. (2017). National curriculum assessments at Key Stage 2 in England, 2017 (revised). Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/national-curriculum-assessments-key-stage-2-2017-revised
King, S. A., Lemons, C. J., & Davidson, K. A. (2016). Math interventions for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A best-evidence synthesis. Exceptional Children, 82(4), 443-462. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402915625066
Kleinert, W. L., Codding, R. S., Minami, T., & Gould, K. (2018). A meta-analysis of the taped problems intervention. Journal of Behavioral Education, 27, 53-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-017-9284-5
Weisenburgh-Snyder, A. B., Malmquist, S. K., Robbins, J. K., & Lipshin, A. M. (2015). A model of MTSS: Integrating precision teaching of mathematics and a multi-level assessment system in a generative classroom. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 13, 21-41.
Reference for this article:
Flanagan, V., & LaRue, R. H. (2024). Research Synopsis: A precision teaching framework for improving mathematical skills of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Science in Autism Treatment, 21(11).
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